Portuguese
Português
Origins
Descended from Vulgar Latin brought to the Iberian Peninsula by Roman soldiers during conquest (218 BCE onward).
The Latin spoken in the western Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal and Galicia) developed differently from Castilian (Spanish) due to geographic separation and Celtic substrate influence.
The Galician-Portuguese language emerged in the medieval Kingdom of Galicia, which encompassed modern northern Portugal and Spanish Galicia.
After the establishment of the County of Portugal (1093) and the Kingdom of Portugal (1139), the southern dialect evolved into modern Portuguese while Galician remained in Spain.
Historical Development
Galician-Portuguese Period (12th-14th centuries): The unified language was used for poetry (cantigas) throughout Iberia. The Cantigas de Santa Maria (13th century) are important literary works.
Separation from Galician (14th-16th centuries): As Portugal became independent and powerful, Portuguese diverged from Galician. The 1290 decree by King Dinis made Portuguese (then called "vulgar tongue") the official language.
Age of Discovery (15th-17th centuries): Portuguese explorers spread the language globally. Trading posts and colonies established in Africa (Angola, Mozambique), Asia (Goa, Macau, Timor), and South America (Brazil, 1500).
Brazilian Portuguese emergence (16th-20th centuries): Portuguese colonists arrived in Brazil in 1500. The language absorbed indigenous Tupi-Guarani words and developed distinct pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary from European Portuguese.
Standardization: Luís de Camões' epic poem Os Lusíadas (The Lusiads, 1572) helped standardize literary Portuguese. Various spelling reforms (1911, 1945, 1990) attempted to unify Portuguese orthography.
African independence (1975): After decolonization, Portuguese became the official language of five African nations (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, Cape Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe), though indigenous languages remained widely spoken.
Orthographic Agreement (1990, implemented 2009): Brazil, Portugal, and Lusophone African countries agreed on unified spelling, though implementation remains incomplete and differences persist.
Modern status: Portuguese is the 6th most spoken language globally. Brazil has 85% of Portuguese speakers, making Brazilian Portuguese the dominant variety by population.
Linguistic Features
- •Nasal vowels: Portuguese has five nasal vowels (ã, ẽ, ĩ, õ, ũ) that don't exist in Spanish or Italian, giving Portuguese its distinctive sound.
- •Complex vowel system: European Portuguese has one of the most complex vowel systems of Romance languages, with reduced vowels in unstressed positions.
- •Sibilant sounds: Portuguese distinguishes between different "s" and "z" sounds more than Spanish. European Portuguese has "sh" sounds unfamiliar to Spanish speakers.
- •Nasal diphthongs: Combinations like "ão" [ãw̃] and "õe" [õj̃] are distinctively Portuguese: pão (bread), mãe (mother), põe (puts).
- •Inflected infinitive: Portuguese uniquely allows infinitives to conjugate for person: "É importante estudarmos" (It's important that we study). This doesn't exist in Spanish, French, or Italian.
- •Contractions: Portuguese extensively contracts prepositions with articles: em + o = no, de + a = da, por + o = pelo.
- •Future subjunctive: Portuguese maintains a future subjunctive tense that other Romance languages lost: "Quando fores" (When you go - future).
- •Mesoclisis: In formal European Portuguese, pronouns can be inserted into the middle of future/conditional verbs: "falar-te-ei" (I will speak to you).
- •Two standards: European Portuguese (EP) and Brazilian Portuguese (BP) differ significantly in pronunciation, vocabulary, and some grammar. BP tends to be more conservative in some ways.
Cultural Significance
- •Ninth most spoken language: With 260+ million native speakers, Portuguese is a major world language, though often overshadowed by Spanish.
- •Official language of nine countries: Portugal, Brazil, Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, East Timor, Equatorial Guinea, Cape Verde, São Tomé and Príncipe.
- •Brazil's dominance: Brazil's population (215 million) means Brazilian Portuguese is by far the most common variety. Brazilian culture (music, telenovelas, media) spreads BP worldwide.
- •Economic significance: Brazil is Latin America's largest economy. Portuguese is increasingly important for business in South America and Africa.
- •Lusophone world: The Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP, founded 1996) represents 280+ million people across four continents.
- •African Portuguese: Five African nations use Portuguese as official language, though indigenous languages (Bantu languages, Crioulo) are widely spoken. Portuguese serves as a lingua franca.
- •Fado music: Portugal's traditional melancholic music genre (fado) is recognized by UNESCO. Brazilian bossa nova, samba, and forró are globally influential.
- •Literary tradition: José Saramago (Nobel Prize 1998) and Fernando Pessoa are major Portuguese authors. Brazilian literature (Jorge Amado, Machado de Assis, Clarice Lispector) is globally respected.
Learning Tips
- 💡Decide on a variety: Brazilian and European Portuguese differ significantly in pronunciation and vocabulary. Choose one to focus on (Brazilian is more widely spoken).
- 💡Master nasal vowels: These are challenging for English speakers but essential for comprehension. Practice minimal pairs: pá (shovel) vs. pã (bread).
- 💡Learn gender patterns: Similar to Spanish—most -o words are masculine, -a feminine—but there are many exceptions.
- 💡False friends with Spanish: Don't assume Portuguese = Spanish. "Embarazada" (Spanish: pregnant) vs. "embaraçada" (Portuguese: embarrassed). "Esquisito" (Portuguese: strange) vs. "exquisito" (Spanish: exquisite).
- 💡European vs. Brazilian pronunciation: European Portuguese drops many vowels ("fazer" sounds like "fzer"), while Brazilian pronounces more clearly. Choose which to study based on your goals.
- 💡Immerse in media: Brazilian telenovelas, Portuguese films, fado music, bossa nova, and Brazilian funk provide natural language exposure.
- 💡Practice the "lh" and "nh": These sounds (like "lh" in "milhão" and "nh" in "vinho") are distinctive palatals similar to Spanish ll and ñ.
- 💡Understand verb conjugations: Portuguese has many verb tenses. Focus on present, preterite, imperfect, and future first.
Fun Facts
- ⭐Most Portuguese speakers are in South America: Brazil alone has more Portuguese speakers than all other Portuguese-speaking countries combined.
- ⭐Galician is very similar: Galician (spoken in northwest Spain) and Portuguese were once the same language. They're still largely mutually intelligible.
- ⭐English borrowed from Portuguese: Words like "embarrass," "fetish," "cobra," "mosquito" (originally Portuguese, though often assumed Spanish), "zebra," "buffalo," and "marmalade" came from Portuguese.
- ⭐Different in Brazil: Brazilians say "você" (you) constantly, while Europeans prefer "tu." Brazilians use gerunds more: "estou fazendo" vs. European "estou a fazer."
- ⭐Longest Portuguese word: "Anticonstitucionalissimamente" (in an extremely unconstitutional manner) has 29 letters.
- ⭐Portuguese influenced Asian languages: Creole Portuguese languages exist in Sri Lanka, India (Goa), and Malaysia. Japanese borrowed "pan" (bread), "tempura," and "tabaco" from Portuguese.
- ⭐Macau connection: Portuguese was official in Macau until 1999 (handover to China). Portuguese-influenced architecture and culture remain.
- ⭐Two agreements: The 1990 Orthographic Agreement aimed to unify spelling but remains controversial. Some writers refuse to adopt it.